Refugee families in Australia generally have a dual challenge—dealing with past traumatic experiences while facing the struggles of integrating with a new and unfamiliar society. For children and their families who have experienced war-related trauma and disruption, the resettlement process is being referred to as ‘secondary trauma’ to highlight the problems refugees face under these circumstances (Fazel & Stein, 2002). This paper discusses the possible long-term effects of trauma and reports on a small study that investigated whether or not a supported playgroup used by refugee families in western Sydney could be considered a protective environment. Emerging evidence showed that, while families reported difficulties associated with resettlement, they experienced ongoing emotional support within the playgroup and developed new social networks which resulted in reduced levels of stress and anxiety. Children showed improvements in the home and playgroup environments which highlighted the significant role the group played in facilitating resilience.

Introduction

The experience of war-related trauma for a child is different from that of an adult. For adult survivors, persecution constitutes an assault on the mature personality. Because of their limited cognitive resources, however, children are more sensitive to traumatic events, and situations of extreme stress become an integral part of their development. Exposure to violence, either direct or indirect, can affect young children’s long-term perception of themselves and the world, and the trustworthiness of relationships (Eth & Pynoos, 1985a; Nguyen Ba Thien & Malapert, 1988; Osofsky & Fenichel, 1994).

When parents are victims or witness acts of violence, it can be difficult for them to be emotionally available and responsive to their children. Parents trying to cope with their own reactions to violence are often unable to deal with the needs of their children. This is likely to result in a lack of basic trust which is fundamental to growth and development (Osofsky & Jackson, 1994). Moreover, prolonged maternal depression has been linked to an increased risk of childhood depression and behavioural disturbances (Dawson, Hessel & Frey, 1994).

Children from families where multiple contextual risk factors are present, such as exposure to war-related violence and disruption, are at risk of chronic juvenile delinquency if intervention does not take place (Bailey, 1997). If these children do not receive appropriate support in the early years, they are at higher risk of developing post traumatic stress disorders (PTSD), which are the psychiatric consequences of events outside the range of normal human experience (Garbarino, Dubrow, Kostelny & Pardo, 1992; Sims, Hayden, Palmer & Hutchins, 2000).

The early years are described as crucial in terms of children’s development. Literature worldwide has identified this as a critical period in which the possible long-term effects of trauma and disruption, including the adolescent outcomes of delinquent or self-destructive behaviour, can be ameliorated in refugee children (Bailey, 1997; Eth & Pynoos, 1985; Garbarino et al., 1992; Lynch, 1992; Osofsky & Fenichel, 1994).

Consequently, a number of authors have drawn attention to the protective characteristics of early childhood programs and have highlighted the potential they have to strengthen refugee families and to promote resilience in children (Hayden, 1998; Hyder, 1998; Sims et al., 2000; Schulze, 2003; Tortorici Luna, 2003; Waniganayake, 2001).

Supportive environments that foster strong relationships with emotionally-important adults, especially mothers, have been shown to assist in triggering a child’s inherent strengths and self-righting capabilities. The developing child remains open to protective influences throughout the early years, and resilience can grow from a combination of positive early relationships, the modelling of active coping strategies, and community support and encouragement (Ajdukovic & Ajdukovic, 1993; Garbarino et al., 1992; McAlister Groves, 1994; Robertson, 1998; Rutter, 1990; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

Discussions to date have focused on formal early childhood services such as long day care centres, in which the child is enrolled long-term for five or more hours per day. The use of supported playgroups has not been addressed in these studies. Supported playgroups are run by a variety of government and community organisations for migrant, refugee and other families with children from birth to five years, and are facilitated by early childhood teachers or community workers. In view of this and with the likelihood of an increasing population of young refugee children in NSW, it was considered timely to investigate a supported playgroup used by refugee families to determine its usefulness in supporting their needs.

Methodology

A particularistic case study, utilising qualitative research methods within an ecological framework (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), was used to investigate the playgroup. The criteria used in the assessment were drawn from the literature (Ajdukovic & Ajdukovic, 1993; Carter & Harvey, 1996; Crnic & Stormshak, 1997; Garbarino et al., 1992; Guralnick & Neville, 1997; Hayden, 1998; Hayden & Macdonald, 2001; Lynch, 1992; McCollum & Yates, 1995; Montgomery, 1993; Rutter, 1990; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000; Van Der Veer, 1992) and addressed four categories: ‘Playgroup experiences’, ‘Children’s reactions’, ‘Satisfaction levels of parents’, and ‘Organisational effectiveness’ (see Table 1).

Table 1. Criteria used for assessment
The program offered structure to the children through a predictable, organised environment. Children were able to talk to empathetic adults other than their parents. Play experiences were organised in a meaningful way with intervention, assistance and instruction available when necessary. Parents and children remained together during sessions to alleviate separation anxiety.
The playgroup environment: Provided opportunities for the children to improve prosocial behaviour and develop socialisation skills such as making eye contact, maintaining appropriate activity level and controlling impulses. Fostered self-esteem and self-efficacy by offering interest-based activities which allowed children to operate according to their levels of mastery. Offered children opportunities to build positive relationships with other children, parents and other adults.
The playgroup program: Fostered a sense of community and social inclusion by providing a welcoming environment to parents and children from diverse backgrounds. Supported parents’ relationships with their children through modelling of behaviours. Promoted a shared sense of purpose by allowing parents to share personal histories and circumstances. Focused on interaction processes between participants, rather than content, to overcome isolation and facilitate peer support. Provided a combination of emotional empathy, information, instruction and access to resources.
Organisational effectiveness: Implementation of a multi-disciplinary approach. Consideration of the family unit together with past and present individual circumstances. Development of a socially-supportive environment.

The playgroup chosen for the study ran for approximately two hours per week in the grounds of the local school and was identified through referral from a large organisation that specialises in services for refugee families. Criteria were developed to select families from within the playgroup to participate in the study. Families needed to:

• have one or more children under the age of five years attending playgroup
• have been exposed to war-related violence or related disruptive environments in the past three to four years.

The study was undertaken during two school terms, and five out of 12 families met the criteria and agreed to participate. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with five adults, and nine children participated in a semi-structured group interview. Participants were also observed in their interactions with each other and with other members of the playgroup.

The two facilitators, who were present at each session and whose responsibility it was to plan and implement the playgroup program, also participated in the study. A semi-structured interview and an open-ended questionnaire were used to gain their perspective on the interactions and experiences occurring within the group, and to identify any outside organisational factors relevant to the study.

There was a focus within the playgroup program on parenting discussions and the modelling of strategies to guide children’s positive behaviour and promote play. Data relating to this focus and to the group environment and program in general was gathered through observation and during the semi-structured interviews conducted with parents and facilitators.

Findings

Eight main themes emerged from the data; these will be discussed in turn.

Interactions, and environment

The playgroup provided a predictable environment for one two-hour session per week. Positive social interactions between adults and children were encouraged through child-centred activities, and all participating children reported enjoying playing with their friends and using the play equipment each week. All parents and both facilitators reported increases in children’s confidence and prosocial behaviours and decreases in shyness, all of which they attributed to playgroup attendance. This emerging evidence supports the literature suggesting that children who have been exposed to disruption can begin to develop trust in their new surroundings when provided with opportunities for developing strong relationships with parents and other adults and by participating in consistent early childhood learning experiences (Garbarino et al., 1992; Hayden, 1998; Rutter, 1990; Wallach, 1993).

In addition to reporting positive changes in behaviour at playgroup, four out of five parents reported improvements in their children’s moods and behaviour at home. This evidence may support literature that suggests that stability, understanding and consistent early childhood experiences can help to increase children’s resilience in their home environments (Wallach, 1993).

Learning activities

An examination of the learning activities presented to children revealed that most activities allowed children to express themselves freely within their own levels of mastery and to access assistance when necessary, thus providing an opportunity to increase self-esteem and self-efficacy (Lynch, 1992; Rutter, 1990). However, it was also found that the art activities presented were prescriptive and required the children to follow a predetermined set of instructions.

Since it is suggested by several authors that non-prescriptive art activities are an important tool by which children can express anxiety (Garbarino et al., 1992; Lynch, 1992; Rutter, 1990; Wallach, 1993), it would seem that further benefits could have been available to the children if these particular activities were structured in a more open-ended manner. It also implies that some form of training related to appropriate learning activities may be beneficial to playgroup leaders who do not have early childhood training or training specific to working with at-risk children and families.

Separation anxiety

Separation anxiety is likely to be exacerbated in children who have experienced trauma or disruption, whereby even short separations can produce stress (Montgomery, 1993). The playgroup addressed this issue through children and parents having access to one another at all times and through no pressure to separate being exerted on children or adults. All of the parents reported feeling comfortable because they knew their children could come to them if necessary or that a caring person would offer appropriate assistance. This evidence may suggest that remaining in close proximity is as important to parents as it is to children and that a reduction in parents’ anxiety has a ‘flow on’ effect which helps to reduce the child’s level of anxiety. Playgroups differ from other types of early childhood services which require parents to leave their children for extended periods, therefore the minimisation of separation anxiety is one of the attributes that may make this type of program particularly ‘protective’ for refugee families.

Transition to school

Emerging evidence in this study indicated that supported playgroups may have a crucial role to play in the transition of refugee children to school. According to the facilitators, a number of children, some of whom had started school and then withdrawn, had benefited from attending the playgroup in the grounds of their new school. The group had allowed them to remain with their parents while adjusting slowly to a new environment, and these children made smooth transitions to school the following year.

The findings of this study relating to school entry have important implications for those planning transition-to-school programs, especially those that include refugee children. Playgroups operating within the schools refugee children attend have the potential to ease the anxiety that can be experienced by children and their families in the process of transition to school. To maximise this potential, however, there needs to be cooperation and communication between the organisations operating the playgroups, local schools and government departments. An interdisciplinary approach appears to be crucial for effective support for children whose development may have been compromised because of the refugee experience.

Parent–child relationships

Parenting support related to children’s behaviour was viewed as an important aspect of the playgroup by all parents and both facilitators. Facilitators placed an emphasis on demonstrating both guidance and play strategies in the program and parents reported the benefits of having these strategies modelled.

All parents reported developing better connections with their children and described how they were now more relaxed and responsive to their children both at home and during playgroup sessions. Parents attributed this ‘connectedness’ directly to playgroup attendance and the knowledge they had gained through mixing with other families and participating in parenting discussions.

Social capacity

One of the major findings of this study was that the playgroup had become ‘a family’ for all participants and that their social isolation had been reduced through the close friendships they had developed through the group. Some parents indicated that the playgroup was often the only reason they had to leave their homes each week and all parents reported that the group provided a place where they felt safe to share experiences and talk about their feelings. All parents reported increased self-esteem, confidence and stress reduction as major benefits of attending the playgroup. This is illustrated in the following quote from one parent.

I am so stressed at home and I can only relax at playgroup. I feel like this is my family for two hours … I feel happy because I always feel like I have a friend. Because I am coming from a different country [with] a lot of problems [and] I don’t have any family apart from [my] husband, every Tuesday is, for me, my time for me and my children … I can meet new friends and family. It’s wonderful to bring all the families together to meet each other.

All participating parents commented that playgroup gave them the opportunity to learn more about cultural practices and the process of integration into a new country, and provided access to practical information and resources. They also reported developing individual social networks which extended outside the group.

Playgroup structure and content

During the study, differences in opinion relating to the structure and content of the playgroup program became apparent. It was felt by one facilitator, an early childhood teacher, that, while the group offered families a chance to connect, it had a specific role to fulfil in teaching parents about the importance of play and how to emotionally support children, and the program was structured to reflect this. The second facilitator felt relationships and socialisation goals should be the major focus.

Despite this difference in focus, both sets of aims were achieved as all parents indicated that they found both the social and educational components of the playgroup beneficial. Further, both facilitators’ perspectives are supported in the literature, where it is suggested that programs that focus on the interaction processes between participants, as well as offering information, instruction and emotional support, are the most beneficial in reducing isolation and facilitating peer support (Carter & Harvey, 1996; Guralnick, 1997; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

Conclusion

Although findings from this small study cannot be generalised, the emerging evidence suggests that playgroups may offer an effective means of support for refugee families if the following characteristics are present:

1. The program reflects an understanding of child development and offers a predictable environment in which children are able to express themselves freely through language, exploration, movement, art and music.
2. The program emphasises relationships and interactions between participants.
3. Support for parents and children is demonstrated through tolerance and flexibility within the program and through the provision of emotional support, information and resources.
4. The program reduces the likelihood of separation anxiety by allowing parents and children to remain together during the playgroup session.
5. The program supports the transition-to-school process for children and parents when necessary.

Although it was difficult to ascertain the degree of stress and anxiety that families described, it was evident that the time they spent at this playgroup was happy and stress-free, and that the environment fostered a sense of community and social inclusion which resulted in major social and emotional benefits.

References

Ajdukovic, M., & Ajdukovic, D. (1993). Psychological well-being of refugee children. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17(6), 843-854.

Bailey, D. B. (1997). Evaluating the effectiveness of curriculum alternatives for infants and preschoolers at high risk. In M. J. Guralnick (Ed.), The effectiveness of early intervention (pp. 227-247). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Carter, N., & Harvey, C. (1996). Gaining perspective on parenting groups. Zero to Three, 16(6), 3-8.

Crnic, K., & Stormshak, E. (1997). The effectiveness of providing social support for families of children at risk. In M. J. Guralnick (Ed.), The effectiveness of early intervention (pp. 209-225). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Dawson, G., Hessel, D., & Frey, K. (1994). Social influences on early developing biological and behavioral systems related to risk for affective disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 759-779.

Eth, S., & Pynoos, R. S. (1985). Developmental perspective on psychic trauma in childhood. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Trauma and its wake: The study and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (pp. 36-53). New York: Brunner/Mazel.

Fazel, M., & Stein, A. (2002). The mental health of refugee children. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 87(5), 366.

Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., & Pardo, C. (1992). Children in danger. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Guralnick, M. J. (1997). Second-generation research in the field of early intervention. In M. J. Guralnick (Ed.), The effectiveness of early intervention (pp. 3-19). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Guralnick, M. J., & Neville, B. (1997). Designing early intervention programs to promote children’s social competence. In M. J. Guralnick (Ed.), The effectiveness of early intervention (pp. 579-610). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Hayden, J. (1998). Dealing with traumatised children in child care settings. Paper presented at the Osizweni Early Childhood Development Conference, South Africa.

Hayden, J., & Macdonald, J. J. (2001). The community centred child care: A new answer to ‘who benefits?’ Australian Research in Early Childhood, 8(1), 23-32.

Hyder, T. (1998). Supporting refugee children in the early years. In J. Rutter & C. Jones (Eds.), Refugee education: Mapping the field (pp. 93-105). London: Trentham Books.

Lynch, D. (1992). From anxious action to symbolic play. In C. L. Thompson & L. B. Rudolph (Eds.), Counselling children (pp. 97-117). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

McAlister Groves, B. (1994). Interventions with parents and caregivers in the community: Lessons from the child witness to violence project. In J. D. Olofsky & E. Fenichel (Eds.), Caring for infants and toddlers in violent environments: Hurt, healing, and hope (pp. 22-25). Arlington, VA: Zero to Three/National Center for Clinical Infant Programs.

McCollum, J. A., & Yates, T. J. (1995). Dyad as focus, triad as means: A family-centered approach to supporting parent–child interactions. In J. A. Blackman (Ed.), Working with families in early intervention. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.

Montgomery, E. (1993). Children in torture surviving families. Der Jugendpsychologe, 19(1), 3-11.

Nguyen Ba Thien, K., & Malapert, B. (1988). The psychological consequences for children of war trauma and migration. In D. Miserez (Ed.), Refugees—the trauma of exile: The humanitarian role of red cress and red crescent (pp. 248-286). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Martinus Nihoff.

Olofsky, J. D., & Fenichel, E. (Eds.) (1994). Caring for infants and toddlers in violent environments: Hurt, healing, and hope. Arlington, VA: Zero to Three/National Centre for Clinical Infant Programs.

Olofsky, J. D., & Jackson, B. R. (1994). Parenting in violent environments. In J. D. Olofsky & E. Fenichel (Eds.), Caring for infants and toddlers in violent environments: Hurt, healing, and hope (pp. 9-11). Arlington, VA: Zero to Three/National Center for Clinical Infant Programs.

Robertson, C. (1998). Safety, nutrition and health in education. Albany, NY: Delmar.

Rutter, M. (1990). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In J. Rolf, A. S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. H. Nuechterlein & S. Weintraub (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 181-214). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Schulze, P. (2003). Mobilization toward what must be: A call to action on behalf of refugee children. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 4(1), 96-100.

Sims, M., Hayden, J., Palmer, G., & Hutchins, T. (2000). Working in early childhood settings with children who have experienced war-related trauma. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 25(4), 41-46.

Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (Eds.) (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Tortorici Luna, J. (2003). To seek refuge: The plight of the child. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 4(1), 101 -105.

Van Der Veer, G. (1992). Counselling and therapy with refugees: Psychological problems of victims of war, torture, and repression. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons.

Wallach, L. B. (1993). Helping children cope with violence. Young Children, 48(4), 4-11.

Waniganayake, M. (2001). From playing with guns to playing with rice: The challenge of working with refugee children—an Australian perspective. Childhood Education, 77(5), 289-294.

AJEC, Vol. 31 No. 2, June 2006, pp. 1-6.

Did you like this article? Share it with others online!  - What does this mean?               You can subscribe to ECA's Australian Journal of Early Childhood article index news feed here Learn more about RSS news feeds If you liked this article, you can 'social bookmark' it with others who might be searching for good content on early childhood. This means you can share your favourite webpages with others, or just keep an online list of your bookmarks so you can access them on any computer. Read more about social bookmarks More about digg>> More about del.icio.us>> More about google>>    More about yahoo>> More about stumbleupon>> More about reddit>> Close this window